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Mechanism of Organic Reactions BSc 1st semester notes

MECHANISM OF ORGANIC REACTIONS Conversion of a chemical compound into another chemical compound is known as a chemical reaction. Organic reactions usually involve the fission and formation of covalent bonds. Organic reactions take place in accordance with general fundamental concepts of thermodynamics. Usually, the sequence and timing of these bonds breaking and bond forming processes are important in the study of these reactions. These processes may occur separately, for example, bond breaking may proceed bond formation or vice-versa resulting in a step-wise reaction. ARROW NOTATION (FORMALISM) Organic reactions usually involve the fission and formation of covalent bonds. The covalent bond is often represented as a dash (-) and the movement of a pair of electrons is shown by a curved arrow in fact, arrow formalism (notation) is very important for organic reactions. Arrows in chemical drawing have specific meanings. Just as it is important to learn the structural representa...

Bacteria BSc 1st semester

BACTERIA Bacteria - Bacteria are microscopic and single - celled living organisms. Bacteria is discovered by Antony van Leeuwenhoek from rain water. they are omni present . It placed under Protista kingdom. General Characteristics of Bacteria - Bacteria are prokaryotic (primitive nucleus), nucleus not surrounded by nuclear membrane e.g., incipient nucleus or nucleoid. Due to the presence of a Rigid cell wall bacteria maintain a definite shape through they varies as shape, size and structure. In general bacteria are between 0.2 and 2.0 micrometer - the average size of most bacteria. One group of bacteria called the mycoplasma, the measure about 0.25 micron and are the smallest cell known so far, they were formally known as PPLO (Pleuropneumonia like organisms). They are omnipresent, found in all possible habitats one can think of. Most of the bacteria have heterotrophic mode of nutrition, i.e., they obtain their readymade food directly from external agency, and may be ...

Virus BSc 1st semester Allahabad University

Viruses (Nature, Structure, transmission and multiplication of viruses ) The name virus (Latin virus = venom of poisonous fluid), it was discovered by D Ivanowasky. General Characteristics of Viruses- Viruses are sub-microscopic particles which have been studied in detail by electron microscope using selective techniques. A simple virus particle often designated as virion, consists of a nucleic acid core of genetic material (genome) enclosed within a protein coat. The amount of protein in different viruses varies from 60-95 per cent and the rest is nucleic acid. Viruses are very small in size, varying over a wide range from 20-350 nm. The largest are the orthopoxviruses, measuring about 240 nmx300 nm, i.e., approximately 1/10 the size of a red blood cell. The complex bacteriophages are about 65 nm x 200 nm. Among the smallest viruses known are the enteroviruses, which are less than 30 nm in diameter. Viruses differ fundamentally from cellular organisms in...

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